Teacher competences for facing challenges of globalisation in education

Aim. The aim of the research is to explore the characteristics of globalisation and highlight challenges resulting from the globalisation process in the teaching profession. Teachers are to be prepared to face any in uence the globalisation brings in education: heterogeneous, diverse and multicultural classrooms due to the rise of migration, immigration and remigration; society’s expectations of and demands on the teacher regarding the learning process, its content and competences that students should develop to be prepared for their future. Methods. The author carried out surveys among 205 pre-service and 110 in-service teachers; the paper focuses on the presentation of respondents’ opinions regarding competences teachers need to be able to face the challenges of globalisation entering the sphere of education in general and their own classrooms. Results. The analysis showed competences that today’s teachers should have and demonstrate to be competent professionals and also role models for their students in the context of contemporary globalisation. Conclusion. The study showed the characteristics of globalisation that have an impact on education. The emphasis was given to the existing society’s expectations of and demands on the teachers, highlighted in the literature and the surveyed respondents’ answers. As a result of the study, the following relation was found: to be able to identify the knowledge and skills teachers need to handle complexity and face the challenges of globalisation en tering the sphere of education, one has to understand the nature and characteristics of globalisation.


Introduction
Globalisation, a complex and multifaceted phenomenon with a huge range of powers and effects, is widely used to describe a great variety of changes happening worldwide. The various changes show how increasingly interconnected and interdependent the world has become, experiencing global integration of economical, political and social systems. Thomas Loren Friedman (2000) stated that contemporary global processes re ect "inexorable integration of doi: 10.15503/jecs20182. 24.37 markets, nation-states and technologies to a degree never witnessed beforein a way that is enabling individuals, corporations and nation-states to reach round the world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before" (p. 7). Globalisation fosters accelerated processes of interconnectedness, resulting in a new dynamic between the local and the global (Turner & Holton, 2016).
Likewise, Robin Cohen and Paul Kennedy (2013), studying the impact of globalisation, identify increasing interconnectivities, interdependencies, cultural interactions and connections, changing concepts of time and space, the growth of multicultural and transnational awareness, the broadening of identities and a move towards greater cosmopolitanism, thus also the commonality of problems. Jennifer C. Greene (2009) admits that globalisation has led to "exposure to and contact with" (p. 328). differences on an increasing scale. Consequently "some individuals are better able than others to open their minds to in uences, ideas and people from societies that are very different from their own"; but those individuals who sooner "perceive globalisation as disturbing and likely to threaten their identity and sense of belonging … may entrench themselves more deeply in the local identities and af liations with which they feel comfortable" (Cohen & Kennedy, 2013, p. 374).
The challenges resulting from the impact of globalisation enter today's classrooms, too. First, classrooms have become more heterogeneous, diverse and multicultural due to the rise of migration, immigration and remigration. Therefore, teachers should be competent and responsible when supporting the development of a sense of self or an identity of their students and teaching how to celebrate the diversity in the classroom so that all students feel included and accepted. Second, Jacques Delors (2001) is convinced that children bring to school more and more brands and artefacts produced far from their families and local communities. Moreover, the information from mass media: news, advertisements, commercials, and other types of entertainment report stories compete directly and ercely with or even contradict the facts students are taught at school. Finally, Pasi Sahlberg's (2003) experience shows that the impact of globalisation addresses all levels of education, the learning process and its content: what and how teachers teach, and how students learn. With reference to that, teachers are to be prepared to face and handle professionally any in uence the globalisation process brings in their classrooms.
Anita Auzi a's (2013) research reveals that the impact of globalisation on education is evidenced in the following aspects: • changes that concern the content of school subjects: • a shift of knowledge components from know-what to know-how and know-why; • an implementation of cross-curricular approaches to learn themes of global dimension, e.g. globalisation, identity, human rights, democracy, equality, peace and security, sustainability; • an emphasis on the development of such skills as native and foreign language skills, communication and collaboration skills, creative and critical thinking skills, digital skills, entrepreneurial skills, cultural and intercultural awareness; moreover, the students are introduced to practising to envisage how to transfer their acquired skills to possible future employment settings; • the development and implementation of the Internet, information and communication technologies, especially interactive whiteboards in the education process; • physical and virtual mobility: participation, rst, in various international student exchange programmes and teaching staff mobilities in neighbouring countries, countries of the European Union or outside it; second, in e-collaboration projects, for example, with another class in the same school, another school in the same city or region, students or native speakers in another country; as a result, opportunities are created for the exchange of knowledge and good practice, international and research collaboration; • harmonisation and standardisation: the initiatives coming from different organisations, nation-states and regions intended to coordinate and harmonise education policies and education standards, curricular contents, outcomes and assessment; however, the challenge rises when tackling the issue of homogenisation, i.e. arguing against becoming far too uni ed and similar. To conclude, the results of interconnectivities, interdependencies, interactions and connections as distinctive characteristics of globalisation have in uenced the development of contemporary education, curriculum content and teaching approaches. Mobility, either real or virtual, is regarded as a considerable driving force of globalisation in education. Moreover, any learning mobilities, either of students or teachers, open possibilities for the personal and intellectual growth and enrichment, the development of foreign language skills and intercultural awareness, and the improvement of one's future employment opportunities in the global and multicultural world.
The processes of harmonisation and standardisation foster integration and facilitate the mobility of students and teachers as education systems become more transparent. Meanwhile, George Ritzer (1996) sees standardisation among four key aspects of such a global process as McDonaldization, i.e. a phenomenon of adapting the same characteristics from fast food chains to society, its institutions and organisation; the other aspects are ef ciency, calculability and control. According to G. Ritzer (1996), what McDonald's represents in the modern food industry can be applied to any sphere of life, and education is not an exception. The standardisation affects the development of a uniform core curriculum, standardised external tests to assess students' knowledge (Janowska, 2016), and e-learning that fosters a learning experience in isolation (Carroll, 2013). Anna Anetta Janowska's (2016) research indicates the danger of teachers' "individual creativity being replaced by a sort of automated process" (p. 294) when teaching in McSchools, therefore she insists on giving teachers more freedom to enhance their own and students' creativity, imagination and individuality at schools, and help students to discover themselves, their talents and the world around them better.
Teachers are expected to be competent in order to enhance a growing understanding of learners about processes happening or arising in the society, presenting their viewpoint of what regards any processes occurring outside an educational institution, latest information, new discoveries and researches. Teachers' activities have an impact on many learners' lives at present and in the future. However, it is not at all easy, especially when living in the complex or, even more, supercomplex world, as Ronald Barnett and Susan Hallam (1999) have characterised it. The authors set a task for teachers to help the younger generation and society to understand the dilemmas that the supercomplex world presents: "dilemmas of understanding the world, dilemmas of action in the world, and dilemmas of identity and self-understanding in that world" (Barnett & Hallam, 1999, p. 138). Hence, this paper is aimed at exploring what competences teachers need to handle complexity and be able to face the challenges of globalisation entering the sphere of education in general and in their own classrooms.

Teacher competences on the agenda
Teachers play an important role in equipping their students with any necessary knowledge, skills and competences to be able to navigate their own future and be prepared to address the changes that are envisaged for the society of tomorrow, i.e. for students themselves. Above all, students should be introduced to creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, decision making and learning as ways of thinking; communication and collaboration as ways of working; information and communication technologies (ICT) and information literacy as tools for working; and skills living in the world: citizenship, life and career, and personal and social responsibility (Schleicher, 2012, p. 34). It means that teachers themselves should also be knowledgeable and pro cient in everything listed previously in order to help their learners to acquire and develop these necessary learning aspects; moreover, teachers should demonstrate it all themselves in their personal and professional activities. In other words, teachers are to be equipped with a complex combination of knowledge, skills, also understanding, values and attitudes to be effective and contemporary in their teaching.
Bryony Hoskins and Ruth Deakin Crick (2010) de ne this "complex combination of knowledge, skills, understanding, values, attitudes and desire which lead to effective, embodied human action in the world in a particular domain" (p. 122) as a concept of competence. Those competences that teachers need are closely linked to the goals of education, teaching and learning and help to achieve effectively the set aims and desired outcomes and optimise ef ciently, teaching and learning resources and efforts.
Obviously, there is a need to differentiate competences that concern teaching and a teacher. European Commission (2013) states that teaching competences are focused roles and tasks a teacher realises in the classroom where profes-sional knowledge and skills are used and demonstrated. Teacher competences, in addition, "imply a wider, systemic view of teacher professionalism, on multiple levels -the individual, the school, the local community, professional networks" (European Commission, 2013, p. 10). As a result, a certain overlap of these two sets of competences is present both in theory and practice as they are closely linked to the professional lives and experiences of teachers.
Teacher competences should enable teaching professionals to meet and respond to complex challenges and demands in the globalised world and society as far as their occupation can handle it. In practice to gain from growing openness and connectivity, teachers should demonstrate their global competence, which, according to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2018), is a multidimensional capacity. As globally competent professionals, teachers should be able to "examine local, global and intercultural issues, understand and appreciate different perspectives and world view, interact successfully and respectfully with others, and take responsible actions towards sustainable and collective well-being" (OECD, 2018, p. 4). Moreover, when organising and leading the learning process teachers need also to encourage their students to examine issues and situations of local, global and cultural signi cance, to strive to understand and appreciate diversity, to learn how to establish positive interactions with people of different backgrounds (national, ethnic, religious, social, cultural) or gender, and how to take constructive action towards sustainable development and collective well-being (OECD, 2018, pp. 7-8). Thus, students will build their understanding of the globalisation and its complexity, meanwhile developing the global consciousness as citizens and future participants of the labour market in the interconnected world. Parlo Singh's (2004) observations show that "globalisation is not a predetermined force that pushes and moulds local contexts into uniform shapes" (p. 103). A necessity arises for engaging with global processes. Singh refers to Saskia Sassen's (2000) argument that globalisation has to be "actively implemented, reproduced, serviced, and nanced" (p. 217). Besides, Hannele Niemi and Ritva Jakku-Sihvonen (2006) indicate that individuals should be given tools to analyse and manage changes occurring in the global and interdependent world which concern technology, economy, politics, security, etc. This is where the teachers' professional contribution is needed and highly welcomed.

Society's expectations of and demands on the teacher
Teachers working in the contemporary school system should provide learners with diverse opportunities for their knowledge, skill and competence development to receive a general education for many kinds of possible activities. Welldeveloped skills and competences, also general capabilities and speci c performance when working are considered a source of competitive advantage. This is especially crucial in today's so called hypercompetitive world of globalisation.
Education policies have been linked to and justi ed by the increasing necessity to improve educational standards thus concurrently improving the economic competitiveness of nation-states (Torrance, 2009). For instance, as a reaction to globalisation in March 2000 the European Council launched the Lisbon Strategy declaring a rm intention to make Europe "the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion" (Lisbon European Council, 2000). However, this goal has not quite been reached. The follow-up is the Europe 2020 Strategy, presented by the European Commission in March 2010. "A smart, sustainable and inclusive growth" is the basic goal to be reached by the year 2020. The goal highlights three key priorities: rst, smart growth, which could be reached when "developing an economybased knowledge and innovation"; second, sustainable growth, promoting a more resource effective, greener and more competitive economy; and third, inclusive growth, aiming at "fostering a high-employment economy delivering economic, social and territorial cohesion" (European Commission, 2010, p. 8). Thus, the strategy accentuates strong interrelatedness of the set priorities. Good education opens opportunities for employability; furthermore, "a greater capacity for research and development as well as innovation across all sectors of the economy, combined with increased resource ef ciency will improve competitiveness and foster job creation" (European Commission, 2010, p. 9). The Strategy is aimed at attracting European collective attention to focus on searching of all possible opportunities to contribute to creating new businesses and employment options. Thus, the requirements for teacher competences are set in a much wider context rather than just a nation-state, but of the European Union, for instance, looking forward to creating competent people and sustainable societies.
"The welfare and economy of the society de nitely depend on the quality of educational outcomes, and these are associated with teachers' competences", state H. Niemi and R. Jakku-Sihvonen (2006, p. 43). Nimrod Aloni's (2002), H. Niemi and R. Jakku-Sihvonen's (2006) researches show the three-dimensionality of teachers' work and goals: at national, European and global level. At the national level teachers' work is national context-bound, depending on their student age level, cultural peculiarities and conditions, available teaching and learning resources. Thus, teachers aim at reaching the aim of education, i.e. to provide favourable opportunities for the development of a free, responsible, creative and cultured individual who can face any life problems and solve them independently, is competent in one's professional sphere, and, moreover, is oriented towards life-long learning. Meanwhile, teachers strive to reach European and global aims when introducing their students to other human beings and their cultural contexts, letting them learn about the diversity in the world; as a result, a positive attitude towards other societies and cultures is built. What is more, students enrich their own identity.
The society's expectations to boost employability and to guarantee success and prosperity in life hints at the right to receive a contemporary but also future-oriented education of a good quality. The Economist Intelligence Unit's (2015) research shows which skills are most in demand for the human capital of the 21 st century; the identi ed rank of the most critical skills for employees is the following: problem-solving skills, team-working, communication and collaboration, critical thinking, creativity, leadership, literacy, digital literacy, foreign language skills, emotional intelligence, numeracy and entrepreneurship. Thus, teachers' competences to teach and help their students to prepare for the future goes hand in hand with the studies on the increasingly interconnected and complex world and its demands.
Furthermore, Tomas Lorens Fr dmans (2009) visualises the world as at due to the development of ICT, especially at computer screens, which allow an equal and borderless opportunity to be employed worldwide for anyone. "There will be plenty of good jobs out there in the at world for people with the knowledge and ideas," asserts T. L. Fr dmans (2009, p. 241). To be educated and trained for a speci c job, demonstrating locally useful knowledge and skills, is no more relevant as it was in the past. T. L. Fr dmans (2009) contributes to the demands of competences required in the new jobs of the at world; his categories include: synthesizers (innovators who integrate and combine their skills and prior experience together to create unusual innovations), explainers (who know how to describe complex concepts with simplicity), collaborators and orchestrators (organisers and managers within and between companies to run and supervise work 24/7), leveragers (specialists who optimise the interface between people and machines), adapters (employees as constant life-long learners, able to adapt to suit any challenges and concur them), green people (considerate creators of renewable energies and environmentally sustainable systems), passionate personalisers (competent integrators of personal touch to work), math lovers (experts in complex and ef cient mathematical algorithms that are of a high demand) and localizers (people with global understanding and knowledge how to adapt a global infrastructure to local needs and demands).
However, Francis Adu-Febiri (2006) states that "the global community needs more than human capital" (p. 52), as the spiritual, moral and aesthetic capital dimensions should be targeted likewise in the education process. In his study he reproaches the determined priority of the modern Western curriculum and pedagogy to be successful and effective in developing people with high levels of human capital, thus contributing to the demands of the current, but complex and fast changing job market.
It is possible that the demands of contemporary job market will not correspond to those of the future job market. Therefore, teachers should focus on developing the physical, mental, emotional, aesthetic, cultural, moral, and spiritual dimension of students. In other words, there is a need to prefer a holistic approach to teaching and learning. F. Adu-Febiri (2006) stresses that students need to acquire Human Factor Competency, offering his own model of an education system where a broader focus is provided to all dimensions of the human factor instead of its existing focus on human capital development (see gure 1). F. Adu-Febiri (2006) characterises Human Factor Competency as a positive human factor, which is "the individual and societal capacity to acquire and apply appropriate knowledge, skills, abilities, potentials and principles to create and reproduce honest and compassionate leadership, empowerment, maximum productivity, optimal pro tability, social justice, equity, cultural development, and environmental preservation" (p. 32). To conclude, students of today, but the participants of tomorrow's job market, too, will have to acquire an appropriate professional quali cation, corresponding to the demands of the job market, in addition they will need Human Factor Competency, acquired in the inclusive and holistic education system. The inclusive aspects of an education system are set to strive to gain a profound understanding of "human, cultural, economic, technological and eco diversities" (Adu-Febiri, 2006, p. 53). Therefore, also teachers are to have and demonstrate their Human Factor Competency as role models and change agents. Finally, an inclusive and holistic education could serve as a basis for deep and harmonious development of a human being who could be able to manage, minimise and neutralise the negative impact of globalisation and, meanwhile, enhance the positive impact of globalisation.

Methodology
The study was organised in two consecutive stages. A survey was carried out, rst, among students -prospective teachers, and, second, among in-service teachers. The research sample consisted of 315 respondents: 88 pre-service teachers, i.e. the fourth-year students of teacher education study programmes who had already had their teaching practice at school, 117 students of the Master of educational sciences study programmes, and 110 in-service teachers, who were chosen from the university graduates database and represented various comprehensive educational institutions in Latvia.
The current paper focuses on a deeper analysis of one open question from the questionnaire: what knowledge and skills teachers need to handle complexity and be able to face the challenges of globalisation entering the sphere of education in general and their own classrooms.

Views of pre-service teachers
Answering to the set research question the respondents named one or more subjective statements; therefore, the data were analysed, considering the total amount of received answers (n=258). The author designed a table classifying the respondents' descriptive statements of actions and skills teachers should demonstrate. Table 1 shows the number and percentage of received answers. to discuss to argue one's opinion to come to and make an agreement to persuade to know how to oppose to criticise ideas not people to solve con icts to check for understanding to ask in-depth questions to present to communicate orally and in a written way, read and listen to obtain and share information in foreign languages Information and communication technology (ICT) skills 23 9 to search for and analyse information to use email, teacher networks and study online educational resources Learning to learn skills 23 9 to research to analyse information to set aims to carry out a self-evaluation Management skills 23 9 self-management -to be curious and study international experiences to enrich one's global knowledge; to be exible; to be objective; to be patient; to be active in uncertain situations; to carry out a selfre ection management of relations -to develop interest; to motivate; to support; to delegate responsibility Understanding of globalisation 12 5 to know and understand what happens in the world in order to help students also to nd their place in the complex world to be interested in changes occurring in the world and to broaden one's knowledge continuously Organisational skills 7 3 to organise and plan one's work to coordinate and manage people, study and cooperative projects Total: 258 100 Students indicated social skills most frequently (55 responses); this is a complex set of skills that supports an individual when making contacts with other people. Teachers and headmasters of schools have to possess and demonstrate their collaboration and cooperation skills. In particular these skills will help when aiming to strive to manage the impact of globalisation, either to minimise and neutralise the negative impact or enhance the positive impact of globalisation on education for the sake of one's classroom, educational institution, community, the state and the region. The social skills, emphasised among the other skills by respondents, are closely linked with communication skills (41 responses), which are the basis for communication during the study process, with parents and the society. Additionally, 35 responses highlighted the knowledge and skills of foreign languages. A considerable oral and written pro ciency in foreign languages increases teachers' opportunities to communicate with students, colleagues, project partners and representatives from other nations and countries. All indicated skills considered, respondents highly ranked those skills that cover fundamental dimensions of global competence.
39 respondents stated the necessity of critical thinking skills. "The development of critical thinking is an essential education requirement for a contemporary teacher of the democratic world," one of student-teachers commented. Indeed, critical thinking skills are crucial to help any teacher to understand the nature of globalisation, analysing and evaluating the available information, to develop one's own standpoint, make wise decisions independently and take responsibility for them.
23 respondents highlighted the ICT skills (literacy of ICT, media and internet, data interpretation and analysis, also a certain knowledge of computer programming), which are fundamental in the era of information technology. Teachers should be able to weave and implement technologies into their teaching and learning sessions and projects. Meanwhile, technologies facilitate an easy access to information and assist when communicating, collaborating and interacting with the community of practice locally, internationally or even globally in the virtual environment.
Learning to learn skills, i.e. a set of skills including planning, goal setting, time management, analytical and critical thinking, and study skills, were stated by 23 respondents. The teachers should be seen as role models who show their learners how to process information to construct new knowledge and solve new problems. When learning to learn themselves, teachers become life-long learners and meet constructively the increasing demands of the technology and society.
Management skills as essential was mentioned by another 23 respondents who considered that the management of the globalisation impact is impossible without skills to manage and organise one's own and other individuals' activities. 12 respondents highlighted that teachers need a deep and profound understanding of globalisation to manage its impact and make students aware of opportunities to challenge both the positive and negative in uences of globalisation process. Finally, there were 7 respondents who noted organisational skills as crucial "to be able to coordinate and manage students' activities and learning, cross-curricular and cooperation projects." To conclude, any individual is a participant of the globalisation process to some extent, thus the understanding of this process is important. Professionals involved in education are to play a leading role as they help to develop competences of the younger generation so that students also are able to understand the changing world of global in uences and know how to manage and control global processes in the desirable direction. The respondents' answers indicated the following relation: to be able to identify the knowledge and skills teachers need to handle complexity and face the challenges of globalisation entering the sphere of education, one has to understand the nature and characteristics of globalisation.

Views of in-service teachers
To contribute more, with reference to the responses gained from the student questionnaires, the author explored the opinion of 110 in-service teachers regarding the areas that should be focused on in the study process of prospective teachers so that they became knowledgeable and pro cient professionals when facing the challenges and impact of globalisation on education and their classrooms. The in-service teachers scaled the list of students' indicated focus areas according to the given Likert scale, specifying their level of agreement or disagreement. Table 2 shows the respondents opinions, highlighting the numbers of answers for agreement and strong agreement. To summarise, the responses of in-service teachers present to what extent the stated areas are essential in their professional activities. When planning teaching/learning sessions, designing learning resources, organising school cooperation activities and participating in international projects with partner school students, teachers and community of practice for sharing experiences and good practices, the teachers' well-developed communication skills, for-eign language skills and ICT skills are a considerable support. Communication skills and con ict management strategies play a key role in the everyday life of an educational institution, where teacher-student relationships face changes due to the rise of migration, immigration and remigration when classrooms become more heterogeneous, diverse and multicultural, also due to misinterpretation of democracy and democratic values. Quoting the respondents' comments, "students insist on their rights and strive to control and affect the learning process, meanwhile forgetting about their own responsibilities." One of the practical opportunities that enhances the development of prospective teachers' intercultural and global awareness, and intercultural communication skills, moreover, the motivation to teach one's subject incorporating themes of global dimension is the students' participation in international educational events: conferences, seminars, study visits in various educational institutions, also, partnership projects, summer schools, student mobility and teaching practices abroad.

Conclusion
The globalisation process fosters the unremitting development of an increasingly diverse and interconnected world. The study showed the characteristics of globalisation that have an impact on education. The emphasis was given to the existing society's expectations of and demands on the teachers, highlighted in the literature and the surveyed respondents' answers. The described expectations and demands focused on the knowledge, skills and competences that students as the human capital should develop to be prepared for the future, their future employability opportunities in the globally interconnected and multicultural world. Thus, the study revealed the necessary key competences of teachers as competent professionals, change agents and role models for their learners in the context of globalisation.
The paper opens opportunities for the developers of teacher education study programmes and in-service teachers' further development courses to consider how to help teachers to develop the understanding of globalisation and its main challenges to be faced in education, how to acquire interactively the necessary competences to face and manage the impact of globalisation on education. Consequently, when understanding the nature of globalisation and its ongoing causal relationship, teachers will be able to act, make decisions, be ready to solve unexpected challenges; furthermore, they will be role models for their students.